Prevalence

ESTIMATING THE EXTENT OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE

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What does Prevalence refer to?

Tips and Hints / Dos and Don'ts

Thinking intersectionally about Prevalence

What does Prevalence refer to?

Prevalence refers to data and data collection aimed at estimating the extent of gender-based violence and at providing information on its different forms. By using surveys and other data sources (e.g. administrative data, such as from complaints and incident reports), it is possible to derive prevalence and/or incidence estimates and approximate the actual scale of the issue.

Prevalence refers to the total number of individuals who have experienced gender-based violence at a particular point in time or within a specified period, expressed as a proportion of the population. Prevalence data help in understanding the magnitude and the scope of the problem within a specific institution or country. They are crucial for policy formulation, planning, and allocating resources to address gender-based violence. Incidence refers to the number of new cases of gender-based violence within a specified time period in a population. Incidence data are essential for understanding the risk and the occurrence rate of gender-based violence. It helps in identifying trends over time and evaluating the effectiveness of interventions aimed at preventing new cases of gender-based violence.

This information contributes to formulating evidence-based policies. Importantly, prevalence must take an intersectional approach, taking into account people’s ethnicity and origin, age, gender identity, sexual orientation, chronic illness and disability status, as well as their position within the organisation.

How to approach Prevalence?

Below you may find practical guidance and examples to collect data on the prevalence of gender-based violence. The focus is on collecting data through specific surveys on gender-based violence or through adding questions to existing institutional surveys that are run on a regular basis, in addition to recommendations on how to collect administrative data. By regularly collecting data on the prevalence of gender-based violence, organisations can contribute to creating solid, measurable evidence on this persistent and often under-reported issue.

Estimating prevalence through data collection

A structured questionnaire is typically used in surveys to capture prevalence, collecting information from a sample of respondents. The questionnaire could include questions on the experiences of different forms of gender-based violence as a survivor, bystander, or perpetrator, as well as the consequences of gender-based violence relating to personal well-being, health, work and studies. Questions can also cover the perception and awareness of institutional policies or available resources and prevention measures against gender-based violence. A range of statistical methods, such as descriptive statistics, correlations, and regression analysis, can be used to analyse survey data to uncover patterns and relationships.

It is important to collect quantitative data on prevalence (from surveys and administrative sources) and combine these with qualitative insights from victims, bystanders and perpetrators on their individual experiences, attitudes, or perceptions of institutional contexts. By capturing personal narratives, perspectives and emotions, qualitative data can not only provide invaluable insights into the experiences of different forms of violence by different groups of people, but also about its impact on individuals’ well-being, work and studies. Qualitative data thus helps to humanise the issue, ultimately fostering a more comprehensive and empathetic response to gender-based violence in research and academia. Of course, due consideration must be given to the imperative of diligently safeguarding data and protecting people’s identities.

Tips and Hints / Dos and Don'ts

For the survey design stage

Use existing and validated survey instruments (explore the UniSAFE survey available under Inspiring Practices).
Keep the length of the survey manageable to encourage completion and high response rates. For an online survey a maximum completion time of 15 minutes is recommended.
Use headlines and transitions between different parts of the questionnaire (e.g. questions on socio-demographics, prevalence of gender-based violence etc.) to reduce fatigue leading to low response rates;
Use closed-ended question types, e.g. multiple choice questions.
Bear in mind that open questions can create large volumes of text data that are time-consuming and challenging to code. It is good practice to collect only the data that you intend to analyse.
Give clear definitions of terminology (for example: what you define as “off and on campus”).
Gather data on different forms of gender-based violence, including psychological violence and other forms which are not covered by the legal definitions of gender-based violence.

Ask about the experience of concrete situations of gender-based violence instead of using a specific umbrella-term, such as ‘rape’ or ‘sexual harassment’. Many people who experience various forms of abuse or sexual harassment do not identify their experiences as such.
Use gender-inclusive language (e.g. replace “woman” with “person”).
Include several follow-up questions to gather more detailed information when collecting information on incidents (e.g. frequency of the incident, place of incident, (perceived) gender of perpetrator(s), relationship to perpetrator(s)).
Consider asking respondents about their knowledge of existing institutional policies and procedures, as well as their level of interaction with ongoing prevention initiatives, so that you obtain a useful gauge of awareness and activity related to gender-based violence prevention.
Collect information related to campus safety to identify areas that require more attention (see Prevention).

For the survey implementation stage

Disseminate the survey via an internal e-mail address to ensure that respondents belong to your institution.
- If this is not possible – either due to lack of access to institutional e-mail addresses or due to internal restrictions – disseminate the survey link through an intranet page, only accessible for staff/students through log-in or through newsletters which are sent by e-mail to staff/students (via an official channel, e.g. the institution’s communication department).
- Avoid sharing the survey link via social media platforms! Even in closed groups on social media you cannot know for sure whether the person is a member of your institution if no institutional log-in is required.
Use communication channels to promote participation in the survey:
- Communicate and remind people about the survey via the institution’s social media (Twitter, LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram)
- Communicate about the survey on the institution’s website
- Send weekly e-mail reminders to staff/students
- Include reminders in a newsletter which is sent by e-mail to staff/students
- Disseminate reminders through intranet pages, only accessible for staff/students through log-in
It is crucial to allocate resources to experienced individuals/services for the analysis of the survey data and report writing, rather than depending on voluntary work by committed individuals.
Studies should be organised periodically and build on the baseline findings of the initial survey results.
Communicate your survey results in decision-making bodies and within the institutional community. Find more about communicating survey results, by clicking below.

Find more about communicating survey results here

It is crucial to share the survey results on gender-based violence with decision-making bodies and the institutional community. This can be achieved through various means of communication.

One approach is to prepare comprehensive reports that outline the most prevalent types of gender-based violence incidents that were reported in the survey. These reports can serve as informative documents that provide a clear understanding of the issues at hand and can support the design of evidence-based policies.

Additionally, using social media cards and posts can be an effective method of raising awareness about the survey results. These cards can feature key statistics or impactful quotes that highlight the prevalence of gender-based violence. By sharing them on social media platforms, you can reach a wider audience and build a sense of urgency to address these issues.

Internally, it is important to communicate the survey results to all departments and groups working on the topic within the university. This can be done through direct e-mail communication, ensuring that all relevant stakeholders receive the information.

Furthermore, organising internal events, such as workshops or awareness-raising sessions, can provide an opportunity to discuss the survey findings in detail and encourage meaningful dialogue on how to address gender-based violence. Adopting a multi-faceted approach to disseminating the survey results helps to effectively raise awareness of the topic and to encourage collective action to create a safer and more inclusive environment for all members of the institutional community.

Note: Being transparent about the numbers of reported cases and any increase demonstrates that the organisation does not hide the problem. The absence of reported incidents does not indicate the non-existence of gender-based violence or that it has been eliminated, but rather indicates that the measures may be ineffective.

On research ethics

Check whether ethics or other approvals are necessary for an online gender-based violence survey at your institution, and determine the information required for approval.
Take a survivor-centred approach to your online survey on gender-based violence and protect respondents from re-traumatisation by:
- Including a trigger warning in the informed consent form at the beginning and before asking sensitive questions on experiences with gender-based violence
- Providing information on available national/regional/organisational helplines throughout the survey, for example, see the UniSAFE collection of national support resources for counselling and helplines, here
- In the informed consent form, give information on the purpose of data collection, survey content, data protection compliance, data storage, authorised access to information, contact details for the Data Protection Officer (DPO) and the study leader. Indicate how data is stored, and who can access this information. See for example the UniSAFE survey questionnaire, pp. 10-12, here
Ensure anonymous participation:
- Inform participants that the survey is anonymous and how this will be ensured.
- The survey questionnaire does not collect personal information parameters nor any other parameter to identify the specific unit, status or similar.
- Participants of the survey do not need to register or identify themselves to take part.
- The survey is accessible via a static, non-personalised link, i.e. respondents receive an anonymous link to a browser-based online survey via the official organisational e-mail address. This means that every participant receives the same link, for example ‘https://www.example.com/survey’.
When presenting results, avoid any identification risks by cross-checking if information such as gender identity, age and job title would make it possible to identify individual participants.
- If so, either delete such information or make it less specific (e.g. the exact age of respondents can be grouped into age brackets).
Ensure compliance with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) by defining the data usage as limited to the purpose outlined in the informed consent form.

Questions on prevalence of gender-based violence to include in existing institutional surveys

If you cannot run a separate survey on gender-based violence at your institution, it is possible to add a few questions to existing institutional surveys that are run regularly. For example, surveys on staff/student well-being, students’ satisfaction surveys or course evaluations. Questions should cover occurrence of different forms of gender-based violence, including not only sexual violence and sexual harassment but also other forms, such as psychological or economic violence, from survivors’ and bystanders’ perspectives as well as one question on the respondents’ reporting behaviour. As outlined before, it is recommended to describe concrete situations instead of using specific terms which might be understood differently. Find the suggested questions on prevalence of gender-based violence to be included in existing institutional surveys here.

Collecting information on incidence through administrative data

Insights into the scale and nature of the problem can also be gained by monitoring information that is available in administrative sources, such as the records of complaints and reports received that relate to gender-based violence. The active monitoring of this information makes it possible to identify risky situations and places which may require further attention.

Ensure that administrative data on reports of gender-based violence is collected in a coherent way across institutional services.
Make sure that collected data, from reports received by different services, is centralised.
Ensure that all services which may receive (formal or informal) testimonies of incidents are trained, know how to respond and how to report on cases.
Ensure data protection when collecting information on gender-based violence:
- Collect necessary information only.
- Re-identification of individuals by combining characteristics of respondents must be precluded.
- Focus on providing information about the types of gender-based violence experienced by the groups affected (i.e. staff or students), and gender.
If your institution uses anonymous tools to collect administrative data on gender-based violence incidents, such as through a website or helpline, it is important to inform your staff and students about how these reports will be handled. It should be made clear that follow-up on individual anonymous reports is not possible, but the information gathered is still valuable for the institution to gain a better understanding of the prevalence of different types of gender-based violence and which groups are most affected. By analysing patterns that emerge from the data, the institution can become more aware of potential issues and take steps to address them.
Use the collected prevalence data, in aggregated form, for evidence-based policy development.

Thinking intersectionally about Prevalence

Collect data in an inclusive way in terms of language, wording and dissemination channels.
Include survey questions on respondents’ socio-demographic characteristics (such as sex, gender, age, disability and sexual orientation, allowing where possible for intersectional perspectives to be drawn out) and on markers of functional diversity (such as type of contract or seniority level for staff).
- For example, see section B on socio-demographic characteristics of the UniSAFE questionnaire available here and here.
- Be careful when collecting data from surveys and administrative data sources. Combined information on socio-demographic characteristics and the incident(s) experienced can allow the individuals concerned to be identified. If this risk exists, do not disclose such information and always ensure GDPR compliance.

Inspiring practices

UniSAFE survey

In UniSAFE, the focus is on prevalence within the context of research-performing organisations. The prevalence, determinants, and consequences of gender-based violence have been analysed via data gathered by a large cross-cultural online survey among 46 universities and research organisations in 15 countries in Europe. In the UniSAFE survey, the prevalence of gender-based violence is defined as the proportion of respondents who have experienced any form of gender-based violence under investigation since they started working or studying at their institution. These different forms of gender-based violence consist of physical violence, psychological violence, economic violence, sexual violence, sexual harassment, and online violence.

In the table provided below, you will find the questions for the various forms of gender-based violence as outlined in the UniSAFE survey. Instead of using abstract terms like “sexual harassment” respondents were asked about their encounters with specific instances of gender-based violence. Access all UniSAFE survey materials, including all language versions of the questionnaire, here.

UniSAFE survey questions on the forms of gender-based violence:

Physical violence	Question: We would like to ask you about your experiences of physical violence with persons connected with your institution. Since you started at your institution, has someone ever done any of the following to you? (Please choose one answer for each line. Answer options for each line: Yes/No) (A) Threatened to hurt you physically (B) Pushed or shoved you, slapped you, grabbed or pulled your hair (C) Threw a hard object at you, beat you with a fist or a hard object, or kicked you (D) Tried to suffocate or strangle you, cut or stabbed you, or shot at you ❒ Prefer not to say
Psychological violence	Question: In the next set of questions, we would like to ask you about your experiences of psychological violence and harassment with persons connected with your institution. Since you started at your institution, has someone ever done any of the following to you? (Please choose one answer for each line. Answer options for each line: Yes/No) (A) Directed abusive comments towards you (e.g. demeaning, humiliating, offensive or ridiculing comments) (B) Made threatening comments towards you (C) Gave you hostile looks, stares, or sneers (D) Interrupted you, spoke over you or addressed you in disrespectful terms in front of others (E) Unfairly rated you lower than you deserve in an evaluation or assessment (F) Ignored you or did not speak to you (G) Subjected you to an outburst of anger ❒ Prefer not to say
Economic and financial violence	Question: In the next set of questions, we would like to ask you about your experiences of economic harm with persons connected with your institution. Since you started at your institution, has someone ever done any of the following to you? (Please choose one answer for each line. Answer options for each line: Yes/No) (A) Harmed your work or studies through unfairly restricting access to financial resources (e.g. by withholding a grant, a travel allowance, a contract, a promotion, etc.). (B) Harmed your work or studies through intentionally damaging items (e.g. damaging lab equipment, a laptop computer, etc.). (C) Harmed your work or studies through intentionally deleting or removing access to files or information etc. ❒ Prefer not to say
Sexual violence	Question: In the next set of questions, we would like to ask you about your experiences of sexual violence with persons connected with your institution. Since you started at your institution, has someone ever done any of the following to you? (Please choose one answer for each line. Answer options for each line: Yes/No) (A) Attempted to extort sexual favours from you in exchange for something within their power to grant or withhold, e.g. a grant, a contract, a promotion, a grade (B) Extorted sexual favours from you in exchange for something within their power to grant or withhold, e.g. a grant, a contract, a promotion, a grade (C) Attempted to force you into sexual intercourse by holding you down or hurting you in some way (D) Forced you into sexual intercourse by holding you down or hurting you in some way (E) Made you take part in any form of sexual activity when you did not want to or you were unable to refuse or you were afraid of what might happen if you refused (F) Made you take part in any form of sexual activity when you could not consent because you were asleep, drunk or drugged ❒ Prefer not to say
Sexual harassment	Question: In the next set of questions, we would like to ask you about your experiences of sexual harassment with persons connected with your institution. Since you started at your institution, has someone ever done any of the following to you? (Please choose one answer for each line. Answer options for line: Yes/No) (A) Asked intrusive questions about your private life (B) Stared or leered inappropriately at you (C) Made sexually suggestive comments or jokes (D) Made intrusive comments about your physical appearance (E) Made inappropriate invitations to go out on dates (F) Indecently exposed themselves to you (G) Made you watch or look at pornographic material against your wishes (H) Touched, hugged or kissed you in an unwelcome manner ❒ Prefer not to say
Online violence	Question: In the next set of questions, we would like to ask you about your experiences of online violence with persons connected with your institution. Since you started at your institution, has someone ever done any of the following to you? (Please choose one answer for each line. Answer options for each line: Yes/No) (A) Unlawfully photographed or recorded you (B) Distributed sexual images or texts of you without your consent (C) Bullied, threatened or attacked you online, e.g. via social media (D) Made offensive or threatening comments on learning or collaborative work platforms ❒ Prefer not to say

Lipinsky, Anke; Schredl, Claudia; Baumann, Horst; Lomazzi, Vera; Freund, Frederike; Humbert, Anne Laure; Tanwar, Jagriti; Bondestam, Fredrik. (2021). UniSAFE D4.1 Final UniSAFE-Survey Questionnaire. Access here.

The UniSAFE survey takes a survivor-centred approach by focusing on survivors’ perspective on prevalence of gender-based violence. Bystander and perpetrator perspectives are also included in the UniSAFE survey, but detailed information about incidents of gender-based violence is collected through follow-up questions that address the survivor’s perspective only.

In addition, the UniSAFE survey captured how gendered experiences of gender-based violence can intersect with different factors such as sexual orientation, age, ethnic minority group status, disability status, international mobility, and people’s functional position within the organisation (i.e. students, academics, and professional, administrative, technical or other support staff), which may influence exposure to gender-based violence.

Prevalence is also categorised by the social position of perpetrators (either individual or collective) as well as bystanders, and the type of connection between perpetrators and victims/survivors, as well as by place and frequency over time. Explore the UniSAFE Survey and accompanying materials, here.

The UniSAFE survey takes a survivor-centred approach by focusing on survivors’ perspective on prevalence of gender-based violence. Bystander and perpetrator perspectives are also included in the UniSAFE survey, but detailed information about incidents of gender-based violence is collected through follow-up questions that address the survivor’s perspective only.

In addition, the UniSAFE survey captures how gendered experiences of gender-based violence can intersect with different factors such as sexual orientation, age, ethnic minority group status, disability status, international mobility, and people’s functional position within the organisation (i.e. students, academics, and professional, administrative, technical or other support staff), which may influence exposure to gender-based violence.

Annual Report National Sexual Assault Treatment Unit Services, Ireland

The Annual Report of the National Sexual Assault Treatment Unit Services (SATU) (2021) in Ireland provides an overview of the services provided by the SATU, as well as statistics and data on the number of cases treated and the demographics of patients. The report also includes information on the training and education provided to healthcare professionals working in the SATU, as well as updates on policy and legislative developments related to sexual assault and violence.

Explore further

Resources and further reading

Supporting materials on survey research

GESIS Survey Guidelines: These guidelines provide support on methodological aspects of survey implementation. The GESIS Survey Guidelines are organised into “Survey Operations”, “Survey Instruments”, “Survey Statistics”, and “Open Science”;
Cross-cultural Survey Guidelines: Guidelines developed as part of the Comparative Survey Design and Implementation (CSDI) Guidelines Initiative. The aim of the initiative was to promote internationally recognised guidelines that highlight best practice for the conduct of multinational, multicultural, or multiregional surveys.

Other resources

An overview of the “Gender-based and Sexualized Violence in Higher Education” topic, including international research literature, survey studies, resources, and training materials, is available at the Center of Excellence Women and Science (CEWS) webpages, available here.
Gender-based violence in higher education research tools, including online survey, interview guide and checklist, focus group guide and checklist, consent form, and more, are available here.
Bull, A., Duggan, M. & Livesey, L. (2022). Researching Students’ Experiences of Sexual and Gender-Based Violence and Harassment: Reflections and Recommendations from Surveys of Three UK HEIs. Social Sciences, 11(8), 373. Available here.
Briquet, C. (2019). De la banalisation des violences de genre en école d’ingénieur·e·s. (EN: On the trivialisation of gender violence in engineering schools). Cahiers du Genre, 66, 109-128. Available here.
Explore existing survey questionnaires and validated instruments based on which the UniSAFE survey was developed, here.